Translanguaging as a Strategy to Enhance Safety and Workforce Training for Spanish-Speaking Adults in the Energy and Construction Industries

As the demographics of the U.S. workforce evolve, especially in high-risk sectors such as construction and energy, so too must the strategies for delivering effective training. Despite the significant representation of Spanish-speaking workers in these industries, traditional safety and workforce training programs have historically been offered only in English. This has posed critical barriers to comprehension, retention, and safe on-the-job performance for many non-native English speakers. However, recent shifts in practice have begun to embrace more inclusive training methodologies, including translanguaging—an instructional strategy that integrates multiple languages within the learning process. This qualitative study examines the experiences of adult learners in Texas-based workforce programs that used translanguaging approaches to support safety training. Drawing on participant interviews and learner feedback, the study reveals how leveraging both English and Spanish improves engagement, knowledge transfer, and learner confidence. The findings offer practical implications for employers, trainers, and policymakers seeking to enhance safety outcomes and workforce development by addressing language diversity head-on.

As the construction and energy workforce becomes increasingly diverse and multilingual, employers and educators face pressure to ensure that safety and skills training are understood by the learner. Historically, training programs in high-risk industries such as construction, energy, and manufacturing have not always served Spanish-speaking workers effectively. In these industries, although Spanish resources and bilingual trainers exist, many programs are still delivered primarily in English or rely on word-for-word translation, which can miss deeper linguistic and cultural factors and has been associated with confusion or increased injury risk (Brunette, 2004; O’Connor et al., 2005; Roelofs et al., 2011; Trajkovski and Loosemore, 2006; OSHA, 2010).

This language mismatch has produced profound implications. Hispanic workers, particularly those with limited English proficiency (LEP), have experienced disproportionately high rates of injury and fatality on jobsites (OSHA, 2021; Dong et al., 2011). Research indicates that when workers are not trained in a language they fully understand, critical safety information may be misinterpreted or overlooked entirely (Lipscomb et al., 2013). In response, training organizations in these industries have begun to expand Spanish-language training resources and explore more culturally responsive teaching methods.

One such method is translanguaging, which can be used to close this gap in comprehension and safety as well as allow learners to draw upon all their natural language resources (García and Kleyn, 2016). Translanguaging, coined by educator Cen Williams in the 1990s, is a pedagogy that originated in bilingual Welsh classrooms and was later developed into a widely used educational framework in applied linguistics (Lewis et al., 2012a). Unlike code-switching, alternating between two different languages, translanguaging provides learners with a strategically integrated repertoire to call upon (García and Li Wei, 2014). Rather than isolating English and Spanish as separate silos, translanguaging strategically blends the two to promote comprehension, critical thinking, and real-world application (Hesson et al., 2014; Li Wei, 2018; Lewis et al., 2012a). For adult learners in workforce development settings, this approach can support deeper engagement and safer performance, particularly in complex or hazardous environments.

This study examines the use of translanguaging strategies in construction and energy sector training programs for contractors in the Gulf Coast region of the Southern United States. Findings provide insight into how bilingual instructional models using translanguaging can support not only literacy and comprehension but also potentially improve safety outcomes for linguistically diverse workers. As the workforce continues to evolve, embracing translanguaging may be an essential step toward a safer, more inclusive, and more skilled labor force.

2.1 What is Translanguaging?

Translanguaging refers to the dynamic process by which individuals who utilize and understand multiple languages to varying degrees draw on all of their linguistic resources to understand and express knowledge (García and Wei, 2014; Vogel and García, 2017). Unlike direct translation, translanguaging embraces the fluidity of real-world language use and has been shown to improve comprehension and learner engagement in educational settings (García, 2023; Sayer, 2013).

Unlike direct translation, which seeks direct equivalence, or code-switching, which toggles between separate language systems, translanguaging assumes bilingual learners draw from an integrated system to make meaning, particularly when engaging in learning activities (Kampittayakul, 2018; García, 2023). Even though code-switching and code-mixing have long been recognized as valuable strategies for helping non-native English speaking (NNES) trainees, translanguaging represents a more strategic, integrated, and advanced approach to helping these learners. Code-switching is typically defined as alternating between two or more distinct language systems, often governed by social or functional cues (Sridhar and Sridhar, 1980; Myers-Scotton, 2000). While code-switching can be limiting due to its socially driven and structurally bound nature, translanguaging can disrupt English-only training delivery as it allows learners to fluidly and strategically blend languages for deeper comprehension and engagement. (Dougherty, 2021; Jonsson, 2017). While both training models offer learning value, research suggests that translanguaging is especially empowering in its capacity to validate learner identity and promote more inclusive training practices (Lewis et al., 2012b; García and Leiva, 2014). Translanguaging not only supports comprehension but also acknowledges multilingualism as a strength rather than a challenge to overcome.

Regarding translanguaging’s grounding in adult education theory, Dewey, a foundational thinker in adult learning, emphasized that educators have an ethical obligation to understand their students’ cultural backgrounds and develop instruction that connects with their interests (Dewey, 1938). Dewey’s focus emphasizes the need to draw on local community contexts as meaningful educational tools. For workers in the energy and construction industries, these contexts would include their worksites as well as their local workforce. Mustonen and Strömmer (2022) argue that socio-constructivist learning concepts call for deeper recognition of the learner’s experiences, including their diverse experiences and linguistic resources they might bring to the training site and the worksite. In their study of vocational education, the researchers used the prior knowledge and experience of migrant adult learners as points of leverage in order to improve learning outcomes.

Furthermore, translanguaging takes into account Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Translanguaging allows educators to create more beneficial scaffolding opportunities and help learners operate beyond their independent performance levels. In his study of Thai learners, Kampittayakul (2018) found that tutorial sessions conducted in a translanguaging context yielded results that demonstrated significant learner growth, which they interpreted as an indicator of expanding their participants’ communication range within their ZPD.

Translanguaging acts as a more flexible and dynamic delivery mechanism for learners who speak and understand multiple languages (García and Wei, 2014) and provides learners the opportunity to use their native language as a valuable resource for developing greater learning and reflection rather than an obstacle (Kaiper-Marquez, 2023). Despite its growing prominence in theory, this perspective has yet to be widely adopted in adult education policies or instructional approaches, particularly in the energy and construction industries, which are just now beginning to look at delivery options that include using models other than direct translation.

2.2 Benefits of Training Using Translanguaging

As Williams (2002), as cited in Lewis et al. (2012b), explains, translanguaging involves “using one language in order to reinforce the other, in order to increase understanding and in order to augment the pupil’s activity in both languages,” (p. 40). Building on this, Baker (2011) emphasizes that translanguaging can also support deeper subject comprehension, particularly in foreign language instruction. As a learning delivery strategy, translanguaging enables learners who may not be comfortable training in English to: (a) process technical content more effectively, (b) develop deeper insights into language context and meaning, (c) maintain bicultural identities, and (d) engage more fully with the learning (Sayer, 2013; Martínez, 2013; García, 2013).

In their study of adult refugees in Uganda, Marino and Dolan (2021) found that teachers who used translanguaging helped participants not only develop learning skills but also increase their feelings of empowerment. Beyond this, Gort and Sembiante (2014) found that translanguaging models created a responsive and inclusive classroom environment, which a) encouraged emergent bilingual students to participate more fully in academic discussions, (b) supported greater meaning-making, and (c) fostered students’ active engagement.

McClain et al. (2021) found that using translanguaging style delivery methods in English-dominant preschools helped Spanish-speaking children participate more fully, allowing them to use Spanish alongside English to comprehend complex topics. This is particularly relevant to the construction and energy sectors, where safety language, hazard signs, training, and operating instructions are provided in English in accordance with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) compliance requirements.

2.3 Translanguaging for Safety

Recent workforce-focused studies show that translanguaging can also improve learners’ engagement, comprehension, and perceived safety awareness (Gort and Sembiante, 2015; Mustonen and Strömmer, 2022; Wilkins et al., 2014). In workforce training contexts, where technical terms and safety-critical information must be absorbed and applied quickly, translanguaging strategies, provided they reinforce and comply with OSHA signage requirements, could offer a pathway to better learning outcomes and workforce readiness.

While there are few, if any, direct studies on translanguaging used directly in safety training or to increase safety awareness, the documented benefits of increased engagement, empowerment, and comprehension (García and Wei, 2014; Mustonen and Strömmer, 2024; Sulaiman and Taqi, 2020) suggest that incorporating translanguaging strategies could enhance safety training outcomes. By allowing learners to access and express information in their preferred languages, trainers can create more inclusive environments that facilitate better understanding and retention of safety protocols.

Translanguaging also supports greater equity and access in the energy industry contracting workforce by disrupting English-only paradigms that dominate traditional adult training programs. Research has shown that these English-only delivery models reinforce systemic inequities in education and labor markets (Auerbach, 1993; Flores and García, 2017). Integrating translanguaging into workforce safety training programs, particularly in workforces with diverse language standards, can help the delivery model become not just a tool to improve learning but an opportunity to help advance underserved communities and workers.

2.4 Research Questions

The research questions that this study was designed to answer include:

• How do NNES learners perceive the effectiveness of translanguaging strategies in safety training courses?
• Which translanguaging techniques (e.g., English keyword prompts, bilingual narration, glossary visuals) are perceived by NNES learners as most helpful for comprehension and engagement?

This study employed a quantitative, survey-based research design to examine the effectiveness of translanguaging techniques in industrial safety training courses for NNES adult learners. Specifically, this study used a descriptive, cross-sectional survey design to measure learner perceptions of training effectiveness across three safety courses that incorporated translanguaging as a delivery model. The research aims to evaluate comprehension, perceived effectiveness, and learner satisfaction of courses provided in this style within this learning community.

The study took place at a non-profit safety council in the Gulf Coast of the Southern United States, which has been training contractors in the energy and construction industries for decades. To protect confidentiality under our institutional review board (IRB)-approved protocol, all organizational and personal identifiers have been anonymized, and potentially identifying particulars such as precise location and program titles have been generalized.

Participants included adult learners enrolled in one of three Spanish-language safety courses intentionally designed with translanguaging strategies. The courses were three different safety orientation courses: (a) Group 1–a general safety training course with general worksite safety information and standards for contractors who perform and support work in the construction and energy industries, (b) Group 2 and Group 3–two safety training courses that included similar information to the course taken by participants in Group 1, but were designed specifically for two distinct client sites, each with their own unique worksite safety standards.

The safety council designed these courses to incorporate translanguaging pedagogy, allowing learners to draw from their linguistic repertoire to engage with instructional content (García and Wei, 2014). This approach differed significantly from traditional translation by integrating: (a) English “keyword” callouts alongside Spanish content, (b) side-by-side glossary items with bilingual labels, (c) bilingual narration and images, and (d) contextual visuals to reinforce terminology. This design supports the idea that language is not a barrier but a resource for meaning-making, consistent with established research in multilingual adult learning (Merriam and Bierema, 2013; Vogel and García, 2017).

The researchers and the safety council’s eLearning development team developed all of the courses used for the study. The content was reviewed by industry subject matter experts (SMEs) and Certified Safety Professionals (CSPs) for correctness and adherence to OSHA standards.

Data collection procedures followed the already established safety council learner identification and test-taking policies, modeled off of the processes advocated by the Higher Learning Commission (HLC) (2022). Study participants, regardless of condition, took their courses at a non-profit safety council contractor training facility using one of the standard computer terminals used by that council for course delivery or through the safety council’s proctored, online delivery system. Regardless of delivery method, a trained, safety council proctor was on hand to answer learners’ questions and discourage cheating. The proctor was either able to speak Spanish or had immediate support from other proctors or managers who spoke Spanish. This was done to ensure the NNES participants were supported if they had questions regarding: (a) the course in general, (b) course instructions, (c) the study’s consent form, or (d) the study in general.

The participants were registered to take the courses by their employers within the safety council LMS using the safety council’s established procedures. Training delivery integrity was ensured by the established and audited safety council learner verification process, which verifies learner identification against a valid picture ID and other biometric data located in the safety council LMS. The safety council learner verification process includes three standard, progressive identification checks and spot checks by proctors throughout the learner’s completion of any course. This process is audited annually by a third-party organization to ensure adherence to the following policies and procedures.

The three times the learner’s identification is verified throughout the process of completing any safety council courses, including the ones used for this study, are: (a) at the registration desk when the learner enters the safety council lobby and receives a training ticket, (b) when the learner arrives at their workstation, and (c) when the learner completes their courses. Additionally, proctors spot-checked throughout the course delivery process to ensure that the learner who checked in and started the course was the same learner who completed the assigned course.

The study participant’s picture was displayed for the safety council proctor to use as a point of comparison at every training station that the participant used during the course delivery, regardless of treatment. The learner’s picture is taken as a part of the safety council’s learner verification process, at the time of the learner’s initial registration. This picture is updated by safety council proctors after initial registration on an annual basis or as necessary by the safety council.

Study participants were given informed consent to be a part of this study by accepting a consent form at the beginning of the course delivery, regardless of which course they might have taken. This was delivered at the time of course initiation via the safety council LMS. This consent was developed following principles outlined by Leavy (2017) to ensure that participants understood: (a) the voluntary nature of their participation, (b) the fact that all data would remain confidential, (c) that participants’ names would remain anonymous, and (d) other information and details about the participants’ rights.

Upon course completion, participants were presented with a six-question survey to assess their learning experience. Statements addressed: (a) clarity of course terminology, (b) helpfulness of English keywords, (c) knowledge gain related to safety, and (d) perceived ease of quiz items. This bilingual survey, developed by the council’s instructional design team, was informed by adult learning theory and usability standards for digital learning (Merriam and Bierema, 2013). By evaluating these indicators, the researchers sought to identify correlations between translanguaging strategies and learner outcomes in multilingual training contexts (García, 2009).

All data were collected only after the study was approved by the IRB of Kansas State University to ensure that ethical standards for data collection were met. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to assess patterns across courses and learner subgroups. Data were anonymized, securely stored in compliance with institutional policies, and not linked to employer or learner records.

Between September 1, 2023, and November 30, 2023, 248 participants completed post-course surveys across the three safety courses that included translanguaging delivery methods. Across all courses, learners reported high levels of agreement, indicating positive perceptions of course clarity, engagement, and comprehension.

When looked at in aggregate, across all three courses, 73% of respondents agreed that the terminology in the course was easy to understand, 81% agreed that the English keywords throughout the course were helpful, and 89% felt more knowledgeable about safety after taking the course, as shown in Table 1. These findings reinforce that participants generally perceived translanguaging strategies as effective for supporting comprehension and safety knowledge.

Table 1: Comparison of Learner Responses for Spanish-Language Safety Courses Using Translanguaging Strategies

Notably, the participants in Group 1, the course on general worksite safety, received the highest agreement across all dimensions, with 89% of learners reporting increased safety knowledge and 84% finding the course easy to navigate, as shown in Table 2. In contrast, Group 2 respondents, who took a class that was more specific to the worksite owner’s policies and procedures, perceived terminology clarity (65%) and quiz question clarity (57%) less favorably, suggesting some translanguaging features were not viewed as equally helpful across all contexts.

Table 2: Comparison of Learner Agreement Across Three Spanish-Language Safety Courses Using Translanguaging Strategies

Although test scores were not the primary focus of this study, course pass rates generally aligned with participants’ perceptions. Group 1 participants, who rated clarity and helpfulness highly, achieved stronger course outcomes, while a smaller proportion of Group 2 participants passed, reflecting their less favorable perceptions of terminology and quiz items.

The survey data across the six different questions were analyzed to determine if there was any statistical significance, which could help determine if what the participants answered was valid or if the differences were due to chance. A chi-square test for homogeneity is a statistical test of independence designed to compare categorical data and evaluate differences in distribution across those groups. Our analysis included an evaluation of the overall data using a chi-square statistic, represented as χ², which measures the total deviation between observed and expected counts. This overall evaluation revealed a statistically significant difference in the distribution of responses across these items, χ²(10, N = 248) = 53.84, p < .001, indicating variation in how learners perceived the helpfulness of different course components. Specifically, items related to safety knowledge and course navigation received higher agreement rates, while questions about terminology clarity and quiz difficulty showed more mixed responses. This suggests that some translanguaging techniques, such as keywords and narration, were viewed as more effective than others depending on the course context.

To further explore these differences, post-hoc chi-square tests were conducted to compare pairs of groups (G1 vs G2, G1 vs G3, G2 vs G3) on each survey item, with Bonferroni correction applied (α = .00278). These pairwise comparisons using post-hoc chi-square tests are done to determine whether any two groups differed significantly in their responses. A Bonferroni correction is applied because making multiple comparisons increases the chance of finding a difference by random chance, and the correction lowers that risk by using a stricter significance threshold. However, none of the pairwise comparisons reached statistical significance. While descriptive percentages suggested modest differences, these differences were not statistically distinguishable given the sample sizes.

These results provide evidence that participants’ answers that differentiated techniques among translanguaging strategies were unique. Safety messaging and keyword use were perceived as especially helpful, while other elements, such as terminology and quiz items, were rated less so.

Across all three courses, participants reported high levels of agreement that the training improved their understanding and made them feel more knowledgeable about safety. This suggests that when learners are given opportunities to engage with course content through a combination of Spanish narration, bilingual visuals, glossary of terms, and English keywords, they are more likely to retain key concepts and feel confident applying them on the job. The strength of this response, particularly in Group 3, where 95% of participants reported increased safety knowledge, offers compelling evidence that translanguaging enhances comprehension and confidence, both of which are critical components of effective safety training.

Moreover, learner agreement on questions related to comfort with computer-based training (CBT) and ease of course navigation highlights an often-overlooked benefit of translanguaging: it not only supports cognitive understanding but also reduces learner anxiety and enhances accessibility. When technical training is delivered in a way that feels linguistically and culturally familiar, learners are more likely to engage fully and trust the training process. This aligns with adult learning theory, which emphasizes the importance of learner comfort, prior experience, and relevance in designing effective instructional experiences (Merriam and Bierema, 2013).

While direct translation alone may help learners pass compliance tests, translanguaging offers something more; it supports: (a) deeper learning, (b) better transfer to real-world application, and (c) an inclusive experience that respects learners’ full identities. The statistically significant variation in learner agreement across survey questions reinforces the idea that instructional design matters. Not all content is received equally, and the data suggest that certain translating approaches and features are especially impactful when delivered through a translanguaging approach. These findings support prior research (Wilkins et al., 2014; Mustonen and Strömmer, 2024) suggesting that translanguaging strategies enhance both learner comprehension and perceived readiness, especially in safety-critical training environments.

This study has several limitations, including the fact that although the survey instrument was developed by instructional designers and reviewed by subject matter experts, no formal psychometric testing was conducted, which limits claims about validity and reliability. Additionally, the study employed a convenience sample of learners already enrolled in contractor safety courses at a Gulf Coast non-profit safety council, which may affect the generalizability of the results. Finally, the study relied on self-reported perceptions of learning effectiveness rather than objective performance measures. While these factors limit the scope of inference, they provide important direction for future research on translanguaging in workforce safety training.

Future studies around this research should examine whether these positive perceptions translate into measurable improvements in performance and retention outcomes, offering additional insights for workforce policy makers. Although no pairwise differences were statistically significant, the smaller sample size in Group 2 likely reduced power to detect modest between-group differences. Future studies with larger and more balanced group sizes could clarify whether site-specific courses produce different learner perceptions compared to general safety orientations. Additionally, this study did not assess participants’ baseline Spanish literacy or fluency, as the focus was on perceived efficacy of translanguaging strategies within CBT courses. Future research may wish to incorporate such assessments to better understand how literacy levels interact with training outcomes. Finally, future studies might want to consider longitudinal data collection strategies to examine whether these positive perceptions persist over time and translate into measurable improvements in workplace safety performance.

As the construction and energy industries face growing linguistic diversity, ensuring that all workers, regardless of language background, can fully comprehend safety procedures and workforce training is not just a matter of inclusion, but of operational necessity. This study highlights how translanguaging, strategically using both English and Spanish during instruction, can enhance adult learner engagement, increase content comprehension, and ultimately support safer work environments.

Participants in this study reported improved confidence, clearer understanding of technical concepts, and greater comfort engaging with training materials when allowed to draw upon their full linguistic repertoire. These findings suggest that translanguaging may be especially valuable in high-risk sectors like construction and energy, where miscommunication can have serious consequences.

Although English remains the dominant language of safety training in the United States, this research demonstrates the practical benefits of bilingual and translanguaging strategies in workforce education. As more training programs begin to incorporate multilingual delivery, employers, educators, and policymakers should consider how to scale and formalize these approaches across industry settings. Doing so could lead to better learning outcomes, safer jobsites, and a more inclusive and effective workforce development system.

Declaration of No Conflict of Interest

The author(s) declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this article.

Funding Statement

This study was funded by the Health and Safety Council (HASC) as part of its ongoing commitment to workplace safety research and innovation. The research was conducted independently by the authors, and the findings and conclusions presented in this article reflect the views of the researchers. They do not necessarily represent the official position of HASC.

Ethical Approval and Informed Consent Statement

No research was undertaken until this study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Kansas State University (KSU). Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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